Spicing up causal cognitive mapping with ethnography

If you use the Eden and Ackermann branch of causal cognitive mapping, you may have used ethnographic techniques already: when you create polar opposites for instance.
You do that to ideally learn more about your focal issue - or put differently to find new meaning.

Deriving meaning through contrast is a well known approach in ethnography as well and covered under the contrast principle ([2], pp156-7). In fact, there are a couple of these useful principles in ethnography. Another one is the similarity principle. This too can be found in cognitive mapping when you for instance weave together individual maps and search for links between maps or statements to be merged.

Parallels to ethnography

Unsurprisingly, ethnography and cognitive mapping are similar on a theoretical level as well.

Ethnography is based on relational theory of meaning. People "order their lives in terms of what things mean... [where] meaning is created by symbols." (words, dressing, rituals,...) ([2], p95; notice [3]). "[T]he meaning of any symbol is its relationship to other symbols". (p97) Think of the word mouse (computer, cage, cat...) or the graphic of a swastika which, depending on where you are in the world, can convey your spiritual beliefs or when publically displayed cost you a fine.

In cognitive mapping meaning is seen as relational as well. Each construct in a map is defined by its neighbours. If you have the construct "need mouse", its meaning changes whether it is caused by "feed cat" or "operate computer".
I think that is a solid base for borrowing some other ethnographic techniques for cognitive mapping.

Using ethnography for construct elicitation

 

Given the somewhat higher level similarities outlined above, is there anything more tangible. Yes, there is.

The ethnographer can find out about the culture he studies by asking his informants. For an ethnographic interview you have many ready-made ethnographic prototype questions at your disposal. Due to the nature of ethnography these questions aim at being "minimally invasive". That is because you do not want to impose your language on your informant.
If you use cognitive mapping as an external agent (researcher and participants or consultant and clients), you too want to minimise imposing your language as much as possible. While a cognitive mapping exercise is certainly hardly comparable to an ethnographic study, this does not mean the benefits of ethnographic techniques do not apply to individual interviews.

I am just going to present a few questions below. If you want to read further on, search for descriptive, structural and contrast questions paired with the term ethnography or ethnographic interview. I also found Spradley's book very helpful (see footnote 2).

The grand tour question

This one is used to get a rich description of a "cultural scene" ([2], pp86-7]) or, in relation to a cognitive map, elicit more constructs about the focal issue. The typical grand tour question is

"What's it like to do..."

and includes references to "space, time, events people, activities, or objects..." (p87) These questions tend to get relatively long. That is alright and intentional. The length is said to be correlated to the length of the response (many new statements; [2], p85) and it aids in recall by giving informants time to think and encouraging them to take their time. ([6], p115). However, the longer the question is, the greater the risk for question bias. (p117) Hence, if possible, prepare grand tour questions prior to the mapping session.

Anyway, grand tour questions seem to be the ideal starting point for a mapping session or useful for areas in your map that are only scarcely populated.

Native language questions

These are used when the ethnographer suspects the informant translates for him, i.e. if the informant uses terms he thinks he should use in order to make the issue better understandable for the ethnographer. That is of course undesirable. If you, for instance, use cognitive mapping in an organisational setting, it is important to capture the language of that organisation so that members thereof who read the map can relate to "their" (!) map.
In a native language question you simply ask:

"How would you refer to XYZ" ([2], p90).

If, for example, you noticed a slight delay before your informant uttered "x", this might be an opportunity to ask how he would refer to "x". Naturally this question can lead to awkward moments if the informant meant what he said. Just reassure that this is part of the ethnographic interview and that you want to make sure you do not talk at cross purposes.

Triadic Contrast Questions

"[O]ne of the most effective types of contrast questions", it "makes explicit recognition of the fact that differences always imply similarities." (p165) It goes like:

"Which one of these two are alike and which one is different from the others?" (p165)

Déjà vu? Indeed. This is similar to how constructs are elicited in repertory grids, the precursor to the diagrammatic form of Eden and Ackermann's cognitive mapping. Anyway, if the opportunity arises in a cognitive map, use a triadic contrast question. Well, "if".

Going through all possible permutations of statements may not be feasible. Even asking a way smaller number of triadic contrast questions may become repetitive. Hence, and this is also a recommendation in ethnography, ask many different questions to counter act fatigue effects. Another strategy may be to focus on emergent salient map features. Perhaps there are three options that lead to one goal or maybe there are three statements with high central score.

Pitfalls

Consider the above as a product of divergent thinking. I wanted to show parallels and open up potential opportunities for enhancing cognitive mapping.

I omitted, for instance, that in ethnography the why-question is a very critical one and rather should not be asked since it signals to the informant he has not explained well enough [4]. In cognitive mapping the why-question is an important tool and asked in laddering.

Furthermore, my portrayal of ethnography may have been too simplistic. Ethnographic studies are tough work and may well take years. Remember that ethnography can be applied for studying cultures.

References

[1] Eden, C. (1988), "Cognitive mapping", European Journal  of Operational Research, Vol. 36 No. 1, pp. 1–13.
[2] Spradley, J.P. (1979), "The Ethnographic Interview", Holt, Rinehart and Winston, USA.
[3] My notes on Spradley's book do not contain references to "symbolic interactionism".
[4] See my dissertation (yay).